MAIZE

Maize—A potential source of human nutrition and health: A review

Maize or corn (Zea mays L.) is an important cereal crop of the world. It is a source of nutrition as well as phytochemical compounds. Phytochemicals play an important role in preventing chronic diseases. It contains various major phytochemicals such as carotenoids, phenolic compounds, and phytosterols. It is believed to have potential anti-HIV activity due to the presence of Galanthus nivalis agglutinin (GNA) lectin or GNA-maize. A tablespoon of maize oil satisfies the requirements for essential fatty acids for a healthy child or adult. Decoction of maize silk, roots, leaves, and cob are used for bladder problems, nausea, vomiting, and stomach complaints. Zein an alcohol-soluble prolamine found in maize endosperm has unique novel applications in pharmaceutical and nutraceutical areas. Resistant starch (RS) from maize reduces the risk of cecal cancer, atherosclerosis, and obesity-related complications. This review presents a detailed view on the nutritional and potential health benefits of maize. Keywords: Zea mays L.phytochemicalscarotenoidsphenolic compoundsphytosterolsGNA-maize Previous article View issue table of contents Next article Public Interest Statement Due to increasing population there is more food demand, therefore maize can satisfy the food requirements as well as provide human nutrition along with number of health benefits. Thus, the aim of the present review was to provide necessary information regarding the nutritive and health benefits of maize so that people will start taking more interest to it and its consumption as a good food source will increase. Competing interests The authors declare no competing interest. 1. Introduction Maize or corn (Zea mays L.) is an important annual cereal crop of the world belonging to family Poaceae. Zea is an ancient Greek word which means “sustaining life” and Mays is a word from Taino language meaning “life giver.” The word “maize” is from the Spanish connotation “maiz” which is the best way of describing the plant. Various other synonyms like zea, silk maize, makka, barajovar, etc. are used to recognize the plant (Kumar & Jhariya, Citation2013). It is considered as a staple food in many parts of the world. It is a third leading crop of the world after rice and wheat (Sandhu, Singh, & Malhi, Citation2007). The world production of maize was 967 million metric tons (MMT) and in India its production was 23 MMT in 2013–14 (India maize summit, Citation2014). Due to its highest yield potential among the cereals it is known globally as queen of cereals. The largest producer of maize is United States of America (USA) contributing about 35% of the total world maize production. It is known as mother grain of Americans and it is the driver of the US economy. In India, the major maize growing states are Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, West Bengal, Karnataka, and Jammu and Kashmir, jointly accounting for over 95% of the national maize production (Milind & Isha, Citation2013). Maize is generally used for animal feed. It is widely processed into various types of products such as cornmeal, grits, starch, flour, tortillas, snacks, and breakfast cereals. Maize flour is used to make chapatis or flat breads which are eaten mainly in a few Northern states of India (Mehta & Dias, Citation1999). Due to increasing attention being drawn towards the development of nutraceuticals, the phytochemical compounds derived from maize and their health properties have recently become the major focus of studies. Thus, this review aims to discuss the major phytochemical compounds in maize and their health-promoting effects, in order to better understand the nutritional and health potential of maize and consequently improve its consumption. 2. Taxonomy of maize Kingdom: Plantae Subkingdom: Tracheobionta Superdivision: Spermatophyta Division: Magnoliophyta Class: Liliopsida Subclass: Commelinidae Order: Cyperales Family: Poaceae Subfamily: Panicoideae Tribe: Andropogoneae Genus: Zea Species: Zea mays The genus Zea consists of four species of which Zea mays L. is economically important. The other Zea species, referred to as teosintes, are largely wild grasses native to Mexico and Central America. The number of chromosomes in Zea mays is 2n = 20. The tribe Andropogoneae comprises seven genera, namely old and new world groups. Old world comprises Coix (2n = 10/20), Chionachne (2n = 20), Sclerachne (2n = 20), Trilobachne (2n = 20), and Polytoca (2n = 20), and new world group has Zea and Tripsacum (Biology of maize, Citation2011). 3. Nutritional value of maize Maize kernel is an edible and nutritive part of the plant. The composition of maize kernel is presented in Table 1. It also contains vitamin C, vitamin E, vitamin K, vitamin B1 (thiamine), vitamin B2 (niacin), vitamin B3 (riboflavin), vitamin B5 (pantothenic acid), vitamin B6 (pyridoxine), folic acid, selenium, N-p-coumaryl tryptamine, and N-ferrulyl tryptamine. Potassium is a major nutrient present which has a good significance because an average human diet is deficient in it (Kumar & Jhariya, Citation2013). Roasted maize kernels are also used as coffee substitute (Breadley, Citation1992). Table 1. Composition per 100 g of edible portion of maize Download CSVDisplay Table Maize germ contains about 45–50% of oil that is used in cooking, salads and is obtained from wet milling process (Orthoefer, Eastman, & List, Citation2003). The oil contains 14% saturated fatty acids, 30% monounsaturated fatty acids, and 56% polyunsaturated fatty acids. The refined maize oil contains linoleic acid 54–60%, oleic acid 25–31%, palmitic acid 11–13%, stearic acid 2–3% and linolenic acid 1% (CRA, Citation2006). The two main forms of vitamin E present in our diet are alpha (α) and gamma (γ) tocopherols. Maize oil is amongst the rich sources of these tocopherols, especially γ-tocopherol and their reported concentration was 21.3 and 94.1 mg/100 g, respectively (Sen, Khanna, & Roy, Citation2006). Maize silk contains various constituents essential for our diet such as maizenic acid, fixed oils, resin, sugar, mucilage, salt, and fibers (Kumar & Jhariya, Citation2013). 4. Phytochemical value of maize Phytochemicals are bioactive chemical compounds naturally present in plants that provide human health benefits and have the potential for reducing the risk of major chronic diseases (Liu, Citation2004). Maize is an essential source of various major phytochemicals such as carotenoids, phenolic compounds, and phytosterols (Jiang & Wang, Citation2005; Kopsell et al., Citation2009; Lopez-Martinez et al., Citation2009). The concentration of carotenoids, phenolic compounds, and phytosterols is presented in Table 2. Table 2. Concentration of major phytochemical compounds of maize per 100 gm Download CSVDisplay Table 4.1. Carotenoids Carotenoids belong to a family of red, orange, and yellow pigments. There is a large quantity of carotenoid pigments present in yellow maize grains, especially in horny and floury endosperm (Liu, Citation2007). These pigments are divided into two classes: carotenes, which are purely hydrocarbons containing no oxygen, and xanthophylls (lutein and zeaxanthin) which are hydrocarbons containing oxygen. 4.2. Phenolic compounds Phenolic compounds are most widely distributed category of phytochemicals in the plant kingdom (Saxena, Saxena, Nema, Singh, & Gupta, Citation2013). They are specified as phenolic acids, flavonoids, stilbenes, coumarins, and tannins (Liu, Citation2004). These compounds are abundantly present in maize, especially in bran (Zhao, Egashira, & Sanada, Citation2005). The major phenolic compounds from maize are ferulic acid (FA) or 4-hydroxy-3-methoxycinnamic acid and anthocyanins. Refined corn bran contains the highest FA content, followed by barley and wheat (Zhao & Moghadasian, Citation2008). Anthocyanins are common class of phenolic compounds collectively known as flavonoids. They are the largest group of water-soluble plant pigments which are reddish to purple in color. Maize has the second highest concentration of anthocyanins (Abdel-Aal, Young, & Rabalski, Citation2006). The most abundant anthocyanin compounds reported in maize are, pelargonidin-3-glucoside, peonidin-3-glucoside, pelargonidin-3-(6″malonylglucoside), cyanidin-3-glucoside, cyanidin-3-(3″, 6″-malonylglucoside) and cyanidin-3-(3″, 6″ dimalonylglucoside) (Salinas Moreno, Sanchez, Hernandez, & Lobato, Citation2005). 4.3. Phytosterols Phytosterols also called as plant sterols are the essential components of plant cell walls and membranes (Piironen, Lindsay, Miettinen, Toivo, & Lampi, Citation2000). More than 250 different phytosterols have been found so far which are divided into three classes based on their number of methyl groups at C-4 position: simple sterols or 4-desmethylsterols, 4, 4-dimethylsterols, and 4-monomethylsterols. Maize oil is very rich in phytosterols (Verleyen et al., Citation2002). The most commonly consumed phytosterols from maize oil are sitosterol, stigmasterol, and campesterol. Their distribution varies in different fractions of maize kernel such as endosperm, pericarp, and germ (Harrabi et al., Citation2008). 5. Health benefits of maize Maize has various health benefits. The B-complex vitamins in maize are good for skin, hair, heart, brain, and proper digestion. They also prevent the symptoms of rheumatism because they are believed to improve the joint motility. The presence of vitamins A, C, and K together with beta-carotene and selenium helps to improve the functioning of thyroid gland and immune system. Potassium is a major nutrient present in maize which has diuretic properties. Maize silk has many benefits associated with it. In many countries of the world such as India, China, Spain, France and Greece it is used to treat kidney stones, urinary tract infections, jaundice, and fluid retention. It also has a potential to improve blood pressure, support liver functioning, and produce bile. It acts as a good emollient for wounds, swelling, and ulcers. Decoction of silk, roots, and leaves are used for bladder problems, nausea, and vomiting, while decoction of cob is used for stomach complaints (Kumar & Jhariya, Citation2013). The presence of essential fatty acids, especially linoleic acid in maize oil plays an important role in the diet by maintaining blood pressure, regulating blood cholesterol level, and preventing cardiovascular maladies (Dupont et al., Citation1990; Birringer, Pfluger, Kluth, Landes, & Flohe, Citation2002; Sen et al., Citation2006). Moreover a tablespoon of maize oil satisfies the requirements for essential fatty acids for a healthy child or adult (CRA, Citation2006). Vitamin E in maize oil which is known as a key chain breaking antioxidant prevents the promulgation of oxidative stresses in biological membranes and prevents the development of atherosclerosis through intervention of maize oil in the diet (Lemcke-Norojarvi et al., Citation2001; Ricciarelli, Zingg, & Azzi, Citation2001). Maize is believed to have potential anti-HIV activity due to the presence of Galanthus nivalis agglutinin (GNA) lectin also referred as GNA-maize. Lectins are special proteins that can bind onto carbohydrates or carbohydrate receptors found on cell membranes. In some micro-organisms including the HIV virus, the binding of lectins onto sugars is believed to inhibit activity of the virus. Zein an alcohol-soluble prolamine is an important component found in maize endosperm. It is GRAS (generally recognized as safe), nontoxic, and biodegradable protein. It possesses great potential to provide important health benefits to human beings. It acts as a nanoscale biomaterial that has unique solubility and film-forming properties. It has novel applications in pharmaceutical and nutraceutical areas to coat nanoparticles, develop promising nanocomposite antimicrobial agents, produce novel food packaging, encapsulate nutrients, and provide target delivery with controlled release (Fernandez, Torres-Giner, & Lagaron, Citation2009; Jin, Davidson, Zivanovic, & Zhong, Citation2009; Lai & Guo, Citation2011; Luo, Zhang, Cheng, & Wang, Citation2010; Luo, Zhang, Whent, Yu, & Wang, Citation2011; Sanchez-Garcia, Hilliou, & Lagaron, Citation2010; Zhang et al., Citation2010). Resistant starch (RS) from maize, also called as high-amylose maize has various health beneficial effects. Maize endosperm contains 39.4 mg/100 g RS (Jiang, Citation2010). It escapes digestion and its consumption helps in altering microbial populations, lowering cholesterol and enhancing its fecal excretion, increasing the fermentation and short-chain fatty acid production in large intestine, reducing symptoms of diarrhea, which altogether reduce the risk of cecal cancer, atherosclerosis, and obesity-related complications (Murphy, Douglass, & Birkett, Citation2008). RS enhances the desirable composition of colonic bacteria in mice therefore might possess potential prebiotic properties (Wang et al., Citation2002). Its consumption influences cholesterol metabolism, lowers body fat storage therefore reduces the risk of atherosclerosis, hyperlipidemia, diabetes, and obesity (Higgins, Citation2004). It can significantly shorten the intestinal transit time that leads to elimination of waste material through feces in a quicker time (Kim, Chung, Kang, Kim, & Park, Citation2003). RS as dietary fiber helps in weight control as it reduces the food intake by diluting energy density of the diet as well as by modulating certain gene expressions. A study was carried on rats which explained that the inclusion of RS from maize in their diet can affect the energy balance through its effect as a fiber, a stimulator of gut peptide tyrosine-tyrosine (peptide YY), an expressor of glucagon-like peptide-1, as well as other genes in hypothalamic area of brain which are the key factors for maintaining energy homeostasis and reducing the food intake by increasing satiety (Keenan et al., Citation2006; Shen et al., Citation2009). Another investigation was carried out to examine the effects of different high-fiber foods on the satiety of healthy human subjects. The results showed that eating muffins containing RS and maize bran had a major impact on satiety compared with foods containing other fibers (Willis, Eldridge, Beiseigel, Thomas, & Slavin, Citation2009). RS has also been suggested to be potentially beneficial for improving insulin sensitivity in both animal and human subjects (Deng et al., Citation2010; Johnston, Thomas, Bell, Frost, & Robertson, Citation2010). Maize is an essential source of various phytochemicals that play an important role in our health (Kopsell et al., Citation2009). There is inverse correlation between the consumption of phytochemicals and the development of chronic diseases. The phytochemicals in whole grains have received less attention and sometimes been underestimated. The research has suggested that phytochemicals in grains due to their potent antioxidant activities demonstrate significant beneficial contribution in reducing the risk of many diseases (Liu, Citation2007; Madhujith & Shahidi, Citation2007; Shahidi, Citation2009). Maize grains, especially yellow variety contains large quantities of the carotenoid pigments and has a vital significance in the diet as human beings are not able to biosynthesize carotenoids. These pigments are also beneficial in preventing cancer (Michaud et al., Citation2000). Carotene has many health benefits associated with it. Yellow maize, maize silage, and stalklage has carotene content of 22, 17.3, and 6.5 mg/kg, respectively (Watson & Ramstad, Citation1987). Alpha (α) and beta (β) carotene possess provitamin A activity. High concentration of β-carotene has been observed to act as a pro-antioxidant and induces apoptosis of colon cancer cells, leukemia cells, melanoma cancer cells, and gastric cancer cells, thus rendering potent chemopreventive effect (Jang, Lim, & Kim, Citation2009; Palozza et al., Citation2003, Citation2001). However a diet with a high dose of β-carotene might not be appropriate for smokers because it is believed to increase chances of lung cancer incidences (Alpha-Tocopherol Beta Carotene Cancer Prevention Study Group, Citation1994; Duffield-Lillico & Begg, Citation2004). Xanthophylls (lutein and zeaxanthin) in maize have some pivotal and specific biological functions. Lutein supplementation in food at dose-dependent manner increases tumor latency, inhibits mammary tumor growth, enhances lymphocyte proliferation, lowers the incidence of palpable tumor, and significantly protects cells against oxidant-induced damages (Chew, Wong, & Wong, Citation1996). Lutein and zeaxanthin are found to be the only carotenoids in the macula of the retina that are responsible for sharp and detailed vision. They also appear to protect humans against phototoxic damage; also play a role in protection against age-related macular degeneration and age-related cataract formation. Supplementing lutein to the subjects diets for a period showed a significant enhancement in macular pigment optical density and notable protection of the macula from light damage (Landrum, Bone, & Kilburn, Citation1997). Lutein also acts as a cancer chemopreventive suppressing agent by presenting inhibitory actions during promotion of disease (Moreno et al., Citation2007). FA has promising health benefits (Zhao et al., Citation2005). It has potent antioxidant properties and protects the cell membranes against oxidation. The various benefits of FA derived from maize include anticancer, anti-inflammatory, preventive effects against bone loss, anti-diabetic, and hepatoprotective effects (Balasubashini, Rukkumani, Viswanathan, & Menon, Citation2004; Kawabata et al., Citation2000; Ou, Kong, Zhang, & Niwa, Citation2003; Rukkumani, Aruna, Varma, & Menon, Citation2004; Sassa et al., Citation2003). Anthocyanins have been well known for their health-promoting benefits such as anti-carcinogenic, anti-atherogenic, lipid lowering, anti-diabetic, antimicrobial, and anti-inflammatory properties. Due to the potent antioxidant properties they are able to decrease capillary permeability and fragility, immune system stimulation, and inhibit platelet aggregation (Ghosh & Konishi, Citation2007). The consumption of anthocyanins from purple maize at 5% dietary level during 36-week administration period demonstrated a pronounced inhibition of colorectal carcinogenesis in male rats showing that the lesion development of colon was significantly suppressed (Hagiwara et al., Citation2001). The dietary administration of purple maize pigment has been reported to have anti-hypertensive effects on spontaneously hypertensive male rats through lowering the systolic blood pressure (Shindo, Kasai, Abe, & Kondo, Citation2007). The pigments from black glutinous maize cob have shown to possess potent anti-hyperlipidemic effects in high-fat-fed mice by improving the serum lipids profile and reducing the atherogenic index (Zhang et al., Citation2010). Phytosterols have many health benefits. Dietary consumption of phytosterol is negatively related to cholesterol absorption, serum total, and LDL cholesterol (Jiang & Wang, Citation2005). The major mechanism involved in the health benefits of dietary phytosterols is the inhibition of cholesterol absorption through intestine and stimulation of cholesterol synthesis resulting in the enhanced elimination of cholesterol in stools. To test the contribution of phytosterols in maize oil on cholesterol-lowering effect, a study compared cholesterol absorption between the human subjects who consumed original and phytosterol-removed commercial maize oil. The study reported that the cholesterol absorption of healthy subjects was 38% higher in the group consuming the phytosterol-removed commercial corn oil than the group consuming the original commercial corn oil for two weeks. When corn oil phytosterols were added back to phytosterol-removed maize oil the cholesterol absorption was reduced significantly again. Thus, the consumption of corn oil in a long-term period can reduce cholesterol concentrations and prevent atherosclerotic disease (Ostlund, Racette, Okeke, & Stenson, Citation2002). 6. Conclusion Maize is a healthy food due to the presence of nutrients and phytochemicals. Based on the health benefits of maize discussed in this article, it can be recommended and made a part of our daily diet. Additional information contact our REP 

Fast Facts and History of Maize

ast Facts about Corn Corn is one of the most produced crops in the world Corn was domesticated in Mexico 7.000 years ago Christopher Columbus introduced Maize to Europe Inside an ear of corn, we find, on average, 800 kernels Corn is an annual grass The scientific name of corn is Zea mays The largest corn-producing country is the USA Some uses of corn are flour, cereals, livestock feed, beer, whiskey, syrups, biofuels, and others. Dent Corn is the most highly produced type of corn. Maize is one of the most important crops for humanity. Nowadays, we utilize the majority of the cultivated corn for livestock feed production, and we use the rest for flour, cereal, beer, whiskey, syrups, biofuels production, and raw consumption. The plant was probably domesticated by humans 7000 years ago, and thus, today, thousands of different varieties of corn exist. We classify the most commonly used Corn types into six main categories as follows: Dent Corn: This type of corn is the most produced (over 90% of corn production). We use it for feed production. The kernels of this type are dry and yellow. Flint Corn: We find this type of corn mainly in colder climates. It matures earlier than the other types and has smooth white to red kernels. Flour corn: This type is mainly grown in the USA for flour and beer production. Sweet corn: This type is mainly produced for raw consumption because of its sweet flavor. We also use it for syrups production. The kernels of this type are wrinkled and have white to yellowish colorations. Popcorn: This type of corn has small hard kernels, almost spherical, which explode at high temperatures, producing the popular snack. Wax corn: This type of corn is suitable for the production of starches. Maize (Zea mays, Poaceae / Gramineae family) is considered one of the most important crops globally, with more than 7,000-10,000 years of cultivation (domestication of teosinte). The plant thrives in warmer climates with ample rainfalls, but it can adapt to various environments. In combination with its high yielding and starch content of the grains, this characteristic made it one of the most “successful” and more cultivated crops globally since we can find it in the fields of more than 160 countries. Sowing usually takes place in early-mid spring and harvest during late summer and fall. Corn History Corn in the wild was not as we know it today. Corn is believed to have been domesticated 7000 years ago in Mexico, and scientists have evidence that people in Peru used to grow corn almost 6.700 years ago. During the colonial period, Christopher Columbus introduced corn to Europeans. Corn is an essential element of the daily diet of animals and humans. It is the main ingredient of various Mexican dishes and drinks, such as the famous tortillas. We use different corn types as raw materials for producing a great variety of products, such as flour, livestock feed, cereals, sweet syrups, beer, whiskey, biofuels, and others. Fast Facts and History of Maize Additional information contact our REP 

Maize Nutritional Value and Health Benefits

The structure of maize kernel-grain The average corn grain is 8–17 mm long and 4–6 mm wide. On average, 1,000 grains weigh 250–400 g. (1) The seed of the corn has three layers. The first layer starting from the outside is the pericarp. The pericarp is the part of the seed that is rich in fiber. The second layer is the endosperm which mainly contains carbs. The third is the embryo, where protein, vitamins, and minerals are present.   Nutritional value of maize Maize contains about: 70-87% (carbohydrates) starch (amylose and amylopectin), 6-13% protein. 4% fat, 2-6% oil 1-3% sugar The 100g of maize offer 365 Kcal energy Additionally, maize is rich in riboflavin, phosphorus, potash, iron, calcium, zinc, and vitamin B. Yellow maize has a high amount of vitamin A (carotenoids), while blue, purple, and red variety is rich in antioxidants and phenolic compounds (2).  The success of maize as Fodder for Livestock, especially for cattle, lies in its:  High digestibility Short life cycle and high yield-biomass High concentration of nutrients Good taste According to the USDA, 100gr of yellow Corn grain contains: Water: 10.37g Energy: 365Kcal Protein: 9.42 g Total lipid: 4.74g Carbohydrate: 74.26 g Fiber: 7.3 g Sugars: 0.64 g Ca: 7 mg Fe: 2.71 mg Mg: 127 mg P: 210 mg K: 287 mg Na:35 mg Zn: 2.21 mg Vitamin B6: 0.622 mg Folate: 19 μg Vitamin A RAE: 11 μg Vitamin E: 0.49 mg Niacin: 3.627 mg Corn Health Benefits Corn, like all foods, should be consumed in proper amounts and as part of a balanced diet.   Corn can be beneficial for human health by: Providing Antioxidants Providing Fiber Providing Protein Being Gluten-Free Being an excellent choice for vegetarians → Red, orange, and purple Corn varieties contain potent antioxidants called carotenoids. Carotenoids are known for their contribution to the fight against free radicals, which may be responsible for cell damage. → Corn does not contain as much fiber as other sources. However, it can still be beneficial for the gut. Fiber helps our body remove toxins. → Corn’s protein content is high. This can benefit vegetarians and vegans since they do not consume protein from meat resources.  → One of the most significant advantages of corn is that it does not contain gluten, and this is quite important for people who have celiac disease and can not consume wheat. Additional information contact our REP

The structure of maize kernel-grain The average corn grain is 8–17 mm long and 4–6 mm wide. On average, 1,000 grains weigh 250–400 g. (1) The seed of the corn has three layers. The first layer starting from the outside is the pericarp. The pericarp is the part of the seed that is rich in fiber. The second layer is the endosperm which mainly contains carbs. The third is the embryo, where protein, vitamins, and minerals are present.   Nutritional value of maize Maize contains about: 70-87% (carbohydrates) starch (amylose and amylopectin), 6-13% protein. 4% fat, 2-6% oil 1-3% sugar The 100g of maize offer 365 Kcal energy Additionally, maize is rich in riboflavin, phosphorus, potash, iron, calcium, zinc, and vitamin B. Yellow maize has a high amount of vitamin A (carotenoids), while blue, purple, and red variety is rich in antioxidants and phenolic compounds (2).  The success of maize as Fodder for Livestock, especially for cattle, lies in its:  High digestibility Short life cycle and high yield-biomass High concentration of nutrients Good taste According to the USDA, 100gr of yellow Corn grain contains: Water: 10.37g Energy: 365Kcal Protein: 9.42 g Total lipid: 4.74g Carbohydrate: 74.26 g Fiber: 7.3 g Sugars: 0.64 g Ca: 7 mg Fe: 2.71 mg Mg: 127 mg P: 210 mg K: 287 mg Na:35 mg Zn: 2.21 mg Vitamin B6: 0.622 mg Folate: 19 μg Vitamin A RAE: 11 μg Vitamin E: 0.49 mg Niacin: 3.627 mg Corn Health Benefits Corn, like all foods, should be consumed in proper amounts and as part of a balanced diet.   Corn can be beneficial for human health by: Providing Antioxidants Providing Fiber Providing Protein Being Gluten-Free Being an excellent choice for vegetarians → Red, orange, and purple Corn varieties contain potent antioxidants called carotenoids. Carotenoids are known for their contribution to the fight against free radicals, which may be responsible for cell damage. → Corn does not contain as much fiber as other sources. However, it can still be beneficial for the gut. Fiber helps our body remove toxins. → Corn’s protein content is high. This can benefit vegetarians and vegans since they do not consume protein from meat resources.  → One of the most significant advantages of corn is that it does not contain gluten, and this is quite important for people who have celiac disease and can not consume wheat. Additional information contact our REP

Corn Plant Information and Production

The maize plant Corn is an annual C4 grass plant. It has large, elongated, narrow leaves that grow alternately in opposite sites around the stems. Thanks to its strong, erect stem, the plant can reach from 1 to 4 meters (depending on the variety). The root system, which can become even 60 cm long, consists of seminal, adventitious, and prop roots produced from the lower or underground nodes of the stem.   Maize is a wind-pollinated monoecious plant, meaning that each plant produces both male (tassel, staminate) and female inflorescences (pistillate, ears, or cobs). The male part is at the apex of the stem, at the top of the plant, while the female flower (could be one or more per plant) grows at the side of the stem and becomes easily detectable when the silks (elongate stigmas) appear at the end of the ear. The pollen production-dispersal starts around three days before the emergence of the silks and continues for a week to ensure that there will be enough viable pollen grains to stick on the sticky hairs of the silks and fertilize them. Although maize is self-compatible, only 5% of the ovules are self-pollinated, while 95% are cross-pollinated with the help of wind. For this reason, generally, it is suggested not to plant corn in a single long row but keep the plants in a group (1).  Maize production, commercial variety types, and uses of corn Except for maize (originally a Spanish word), another common name of the crop is corn, mainly used in British-speaking countries since maize was the most abundant of all grains=corn (2).  The top maize-producing country globally is the USA. At the same time, China, Brazil, and Argentina account for over 60 percent of total maize production , followed by Ukraine and France for Europe. The type of maize cultivated varies significantly between the different regions or countries (for example, in the USA, more than 80% of the production accounts for yellow maize, while in the developing countries, the areas cultivated with white maize are much larger compared to yellow corn varieties (3,4). Except for the yellow and white varieties, there is a significant variation in the natural pigments of the maize grains from white to yellow, red, blue, purple, etc.  The maize varieties with the highest commercial-economic importance are grouped into four main categories: Dent maize, Flint maize, popcorn, and sweetcorn. Some include the groups of the pod, waxy and high-amylose corn. This classification is mainly based on the kernel texture.  Depending on the product’s final use, people can use both the grains and the vegetative parts of the plant.  The grain of maize is used as  Animal feed, Human consumption (it is considered a staple food in many countries, and it is gluten-free) and oil production for culinary purposes. Industrial products (biodegradable foams, plastics, and adhesives) The maize stover, the leaves, and stalk of the maize plant, are used for Forage, Biofuel production, Chemical production Almost 70% of maize production in the USA is used for animal feed and ethyl alcohol production (biofuels). However, in the EU, things are different, with most of the output being used as feedstuff (5,6). Finally, maize is a plant of great importance for the scientific community since it has been used as a model organism for genetics and molecular biology for over 100 years now.  Additional information contact our REP 

How to Grow Corn for Profit – Maize growing guide

Introduction to Maize Farming – Corn Production Manual In a few words, corn is a warm-period annual grass used for the production of various products. To start corn farming, someone must have a sufficiently big growing area, as economies of scale are very important for crop profitability. You can read all the articles of this series in order to gain an understanding of factors that may result in good yield, as well as restrictions and risks that may put your crop into trouble.   A few weeks or days before the seeding, corn farmers often prepare the field. They till the land and remove any previous cultivation remains and weeds from the field. Then they integrate into the soil the basal fertilization. They also design the irrigation system. When they are ready for seeding, they use big seeding machines which sprinkle Corn seeds on rows defined by the producers. Fertilization, Irrigation, and Weed Management are applied in most cases.  Most commercial corn varieties can be harvested 60-140 days after seeding. The time from Planting to Harvesting depends on the variety, climate, and soil conditions prevailing in the area. Nowadays, producers harvest corn through large harvesters. These machines remove the entire plant, and at the same time, they separate the seeds from the rest of the biomass. After harvesting, corn growers plow and destroy or integrate the remains of the crop. They may also use the remains as animal feed or for various other purposes. Then, they may rotate the crop with Fabaceae or other plants to control diseases and prevent soil from depleting.  The restrictive factor when growing corn is the climate. Corn is a warm-period crop. It prefers slightly average to high temperatures to thrive. It is sensitive to frost; most varieties start to have problems in temperatures under 10 °C (50 °F). However, some varieties may tolerate up to 0 °C (32 °F) without dying. Extremely high temperatures >45 °C (113 °F) also cause problems. As optimum temperatures, we consider average temperatures 20-22 °C (68 °F to 73 °F). It is crucial to examine which varieties of corn thrive in your area. This procedure is critical. Each variety gives products of different yields and quality when cultivated under different growing conditions. The most commonly used Corn types nowadays are classified as follows: Dent Corn: This type of corn is the most popular (over 90% of corn production) and is mainly used for feed production. The kernels of this type are dry and yellow. Flint Corn: We find this type of corn mainly in colder climates. It matures earlier than the other types and has smooth white to red kernels. Flour corn: This type is mainly cultivated in the USA for flour and beer production. Sweet corn: This type is produced for raw consumption because of its sweet flavor. We also use it for syrups production. The kernels of this type are wrinkled and have white to yellowish colorations. Popcorn: This type of corn has small hard kernels, almost spherical, which explode at high temperatures, producing the popular snack. Waxy corn: This type of corn is mainly used for the production of starches. We further categorize corn varieties depending on their biological cycle. Thus we have varieties of 300-400-500-600 or 700 FAO. In a few words, if we have a big FAO number, the growing season of the corn will be longer, and we normally need more heat compared to smaller FAO numbers. On the opposite, the more we move north or to higher altitudes, the less heat units our crop can enjoy, so we shall choose an earlier variety with a smaller FAO number. As a rule of thumb, a longer growing season may result in higher yields, but also in higher costs (irrigation, fertilization, pest management etc.).  Additional information contact our REP 

Principles for selecting the best maize variety

Guide for corn variety selection – Factors and characteristics to take into account for choosing the most appropriate variety of maize. The selection of the cultivated maize variety is one of the most critical human-controlled factors affecting crop production. A careful variety choice can upgrade a farmer’s production in the long run and/or protect the yield in case of external-uncontrollable factors (e.g., diseases, environmental stresses, etc.). There are thousands of maize varieties available in the market, while new ones are constantly created by plant breeders globally. From 2012 to 2022, the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Centre (CIMMYT) and the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) have developed 604 maize varieties in 33 countries (https://maize.org/) The first categorization of Corn varieties has to do with biological cycle and FAO number. We have varieties of 300-400-500-600 or 700 FAO. In a few words, if we have a big FAO number, the growing season of the corn will be longer, and we normally need more heat compared to smaller FAO numbers. On the opposite, the more we move north or to higher altitudes, the less heat units our crop can enjoy, so we shall choose an earlier variety with smaller FAO number. As a rule of thumb, a longer growing season results in higher yields, but also higher costs (irrigation, fertilization, pest management etc.).  There are two main categories of maize varieties: Open Pollinated Varieties-OPVs and Hybrids Open-pollinated varieties were mostly used until 2000 due to the easy and low-cost way of development and reproduction. The intensification of maize cultivation and the prevalence of monoculture have established hybrid maize varieties as the main choice, especially in regions like the USA and Europe, due to the higher yield that they offer. However, new research data show that in systems like agroforestry, the open-pollinated corn varieties can perform equally well with the hybrids (Ndoli, 2019).  As a result, a farmer can find numerous maize varieties available to satisfy many of the modern needs for successful maize production. However, the selection of the variety should be based on factors like the characteristics of the variety, the local environment of the field we want to cultivate our maize, and finally, the cultivation system (organic, conventional, etc.), keeping also in mind the available inputs (fertilization, irrigation, etc.) that we can offer to the crop. For example, a variety X might be the best choice for an area with plenty of rainfalls, but it will not reach its potential yield in an area with excessive drought-heat and limited availability for irrigation. Similarly, a farmer should take into account, before making a decision, the “enemies” (pathogens, pests, and weeds) of the crop that thrive in the area. Many varieties have different sets of resistant genes against specific plant diseases, and others carry characteristics that make them more competitive against weeds. This is especially important for farmers that want to decrease the use of chemical pesticides and herbicides. Consequently, we should always keep in mind that not all varieties are suitable for all environments or/and cultivation systems (no-tillage, organic, etc.). In general, the maize variety we will choose to sow into our field should offer a satisfactory-good yield without the excessive use of inputs like fertilizers, irrigation, and pest management products. This way, the choice of the variety has a principal role in the crop’s sustainability status and the farmer’s profit (fewer expenses → more profit). List of Important traits to take into account when choosing a Corn variety The cultivar-variety choice should be based on yield, quality, and agronomic characteristics-behavior of the variety. More specifically, the traits of high interest for maize are: Yield potential of the maize variety Adaptability (varieties with wide adaptability are suitable for a diversity of conditions). The adaptability of a maize variety depends on the plant’s tolerance to environmental stresses (e.g., drought, heat, frost, etc.). When we say that a variety has wide adaptability, this means that it can reach a good-stable yield in a wide variety of conditions. The stable yield from year to year is a trait-characteristic of high importance, especially for a farmer of contract agriculture (preselling the future production). In low-density management strategies applied in drought areas, reproductive plasticity (the yield produced per unit of resource input-available) is an important characteristic of the variety selected. Corn Ear Prolificacy This trait links both with the adaptability and the yield of maize. During the domestication of maize, one of the characteristics that changed significantly was the number of ears per plant (ears=female inflorescences🡪maize spadix). In the case of maize, this number decreased, with some commercial varieties for intensive agriculture systems having 1-2 ears per plant (Iltis HH – 1983). However, in low plant density and limited nitrogen fertilization systems, the increased ear prolificacy can stabilize the total maize production (Parco 2020). Length of the crop life (can be referred to as CRM= Cumulative Relative Maturity, in days, or as Maturation time) and planting date of maize. Depending on the area of cultivation, the farmer should take into account the weather and temperature mainly at the start (sowing-emergence) and at later stages (flower, fertilization and maturity) of the crop cycle (=cultivation period). If the temperatures are still low during sowing, the farmer should choose a variety with relevant tolerance. Similarly, in warmer climates, the most popular varieties have resistance to high temperatures and drought. Lodging resistance (can be described or be relevant to Stalk strength, Cob height, Stability) For maize, like in other grain crops, the ability of the plants to endure strong winds and maintain their vertical position can dramatically affect the final yield. If the stem or the whole plant bend near the ground, there is an increased risk of a disease outbreak (due to bad aeration) and losses during harvest. Keep in mind that the risk of Lodging also depends on the plant density of the crop ( read more here, 10). Disease resistance against major corn pathogens The variety selected should be tolerant or resistant to a range or to specific diseases such as ear rot, maize streak virus disease, grey leaf spot, rust, cob-and-tassel smut, stem rot, and root rots. Not all varieties are similarly resistant to all diseases. Farmers should be aware of which are the most common and prevalent pathogens in the area they want to cultivate maize. However, the performance of a variety against a pathogen should have been tested under field conditions (the characteristics and rating of the variety for a specific pathogen resistance might be different between lab and field conditions – read the rating carefully).  Weed tolerance – Resistance to Striga- witchweed Striga is a parasitic weed and one of the major “enemies” of maize, causing countless yield losses each year globally. Scientists are currently testing the use of imidazolinone-resistant (IR) maize seed with promising results (11). End-Commercial use of the maize grain (livestock feed, food, bio-fuel production, starch or oil production) Depending on the final use of the grains produced, there are different desirable sets of characteristics (Organoleptic characteristics, the chemical composition of the grain, etc.). For example, maize that is cultivated for livestock feed needs to have a high protein (zein) content in maize grain (feed quality of maize variety). However, it is essential to remember that many quality characteristics can be affected to some extent, from the cultivation and storage practices that the farmer follows Győri, Z. (2017).  Some of the standard characteristics describing the performance and grain quality of maize varieties are: The Dry Matter (DM) content at harvest (you will find it as a percentage number that usually ranges up to 38% for forage maize). The actual Dry Matter yield [is expressed as tons per hectare (t/ha), and this number ranges up to 20]. Metabolizable energy (ME) of a fresh plant at harvest. It is the energy value of silage measured in MJ/kgDM. Starch content or/and starch yield of the whole plant at harvest. Cell wall digestibility (%). The higher the number, the better since the high digestibility of the fiber highly influence the nutritional value of the forage (Barrière, 2003). Early vigor of the plant. The higher (up to 9), the better because it also reflects the competitive ability of the crop against weeds. Standing power at harvest (root lodging). In this case, the character is graded on a scale from 1 (poor) to 9 (good). The ability of the crop to maintain its vertical position (easier harvest) is also described by the Lodging (%). In this case, we need the number to be as low as possible. Brackling (%). It is the kinking or buckling of the stem at/around the nodal areas close to the time of harvest. This number should also be as low as possible since it reflects yield losses and problems during maize harvest. Leaf senescence. The characteristic is graded on a scale from 1 (green leaves) to 9 (advanced senescence-dried leaves-plants). A synonymous term is the Stay-Green (delayed leaf senescence). This characteristic has positively correlation with higher yield (grain and silage production), quality, and stress resistance of the plants. The reason for this is that the plant can  be photosynthetically active for a longer period of time, a characteristic especially important for short- period (early maturation) maize varieties. However, based on scientific data, there might be a negative effect of stay-green on the nitrogen content of the corn grain, an issue that it is resolved thanks to the higher uptake of N after flowering (Chibane, 2021). You can find BSPB Forage Maize Descriptive List with maize varieties available in the market here (9). Genetically modified maize varieties (GM) After soybean, maize is the second most widely cultivated genetically modified (GM) crop. GM maize varieties have been available in the market already since 1996, and until today they carry resistance genes for pest tolerance, herbicide resistance, and, most recently (2013), drought tolerance. More specifically, the pest-resistant transgenic maize varieties confer HT- or/and Bt-mediated insecticidal activity. This trait is usually combined with herbicide tolerance for the crop. Finally, a new line variety was created by stacking together eight transgenes offering multiple resistance against major corn pests (Moglia 2016). As in other crops, all genetically modified maize varieties cannot still be cultivated in numerous countries worldwide, and of course, they are strictly prohibited in organic agriculture systems. The farmer should make a research concerning the current legislative framework around GM in his/her country and examine the market demand for such products since many countries do not import GM products. Tip: In any case, it is highly advised to test the one or multiple varieties you have chosen in a smaller field area before using it as your main variety for cultivation. This test will give you a better picture of how this variety behaves in your field.  References Ndoli, A., Baudron, F., Sida, T. S., Schut, A. G., Van Heerwaarden, J., & Giller, K. E. (2019). Do open-pollinated maize varieties perform better than hybrids in agroforestry systems?. Experimental Agriculture, 55(4), 649-661. Moglia, A., & Portis, E. (2016). Genetically Modified Foods. Encyclopedia of Food and Health, 196–203. https://www.arc.agric.za/arc-gci/fact%20sheets%20library/maize%20production.pdf   Iltis HH (1983) From teosinte to maize: The catastrophic sexual transmutation. Science 222:886-94 Parco, M., Ciampitti, I. A., D’Andrea, K. E., & Maddonni, G. Á. (2020). Prolificacy and nitrogen internal efficiency in maize crops. Field Crops Research, 256, 107912. Győri, Z. (2017). Corn: Grain-Quality Characteristics and Management of Quality Requirements. In Cereal Grains (pp. 257-290). Woodhead Publishing. Chibane, N., Caicedo, M., Martinez, S., Marcet, P., Revilla, P., & Ordás, B. (2021). Relationship between delayed leaf senescence (Stay-green) and agronomic and physiological characters in maize (Zea mays L.). Agronomy, 11(2), 276. Barrière, Y., Guillet, C., Goffner, D., & Pichon, M. (2003). Genetic variation and breeding strategies for improved cell wall digestibility in annual forage crops. A review. Animal Research, 52(3), 193-228. Additional information contact our REP